Flora
Permanent flooding creates conditions for swamp and marsh vegetative formations, including tuberas (peatlands), swampy plains, and mangrove salt marshes (Provita 1988).
The tuberas (peatlands) are great extensions of water with organic soils in which herbaceous vegetation, moriche palms, and forests develop. Palms sometimes dominate this formation. Herbaceous vegetation includes ferns (the most common species is "serrucho," Nephorolepis cordifolia), mosses and small mangroves. In forest and moriche palm swamps, the most common species include moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa), chaguaramos palm (Roystonea oleracea), corioco palm (Astrocaryum gynacanthum), píritu palm (Bactris piritu), Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata), kapok tree (Ceiba pentandra) and coral trees (Erythrina spp) (Ceballos and col. 2001).
Chaguaramo palms are commonly observed on Turuépano's islands
Throughout the swampy plains, which were formed by fluvial-marine sediments, herbaceous swamp vegetation develops. Dominant species here belong to Cyperaceae (sedge family) and include juncos, papiros and cortaderas.
The salt marshes are closest to the coastal streams and diminish away from the coast as rivers become more important and mangroves give way to riparian forests. Common species of the riparian forests include bloodwood (Pterocarpus officinalis), peramán (Symphonia globulifera), Guiana chestnut (Pachira aquatica), chaguaramo palm (Roystonea venezuelana), coral trees (Erythrina sp), apamate (Tabebuia pentaphylla), jobo (Spondias mombin) and sandbox tree (Hura crepitans) (Mondolfi and Müller 1979; Fernández and Michelangeli 2003).
Red mangrove (left) is more abundant along stream edges. Mangrove forest along a stream (right).
Without a doubt, the park's emblematic ecosystem is the mangrove forest since Turuépano has one of the most extensive mangrove reserves in all of Venezuela. Mangroves cover 50% of the protected area, or 37,394 has. This represents 5% of Venezuela's total mangrove surface area. Turuépano is noted for harboring great mangrove diversity and especially for its large individual trees (some reach 45 m in height). The mangrove diversity makes the park one of a kind in Venezuela (Provita 1988). Formations include monospecies forests of red mangrove (Rhizophora sp.) or white mangrove (Avicenia sp.) and mixed forests of Rhizophora-Avicenia, Rhizophora-Laguncularia and Rhizophora-Avicenia-Laguncularia. Mixed formations are most common. All three species of Rhizophora are found here: R. racemosa, R. harrissonni and R. mangle. In Avicenia sp. forests, incredible densities stand out (up to 256,000 individuals per hectare). Presence of botoncillo, or yellow mangrove, (Laguncularia sp.) is associated in sectors with more fluvial influence and areas better protected from the tides. The level of development in these forests suggests high ecosystem stability (Mondolfi and Müller 1979; Arroyo 1970; Budowski 1952; Canales and Zelwer 1978; MARNR-PNUMA, 1985; MARNR 1992; Pannier 1986). Nonetheless, mangrove structure and functioning is highly dependent on changes in water quality and quantity, which makes this environment very sensitive, even fragile, to any disturbances that could generate changes in drainage patterns (Pannier and Fraino 1989; Lentino and Bruni 1994).
These mangroves are among the best-conserved in the country (Lentino and Bruni 1994; Rodríguez 1999; Monente and Colonnello 2004) and they play an important role in stabilizing the delta. Mangroves are also key environments for maintaining diverse fauna and for processing toxic wastes, like hydrocarbons (Lentino and Bruni 1994). In addition, mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems in the world (Pannier and Fraino 1989). It is estimated that annual production of dry organic material is around 50,000 kg/ha. Of this, approximately 3,000 kg/ha per year (or 5% of total primary production) becomes leaf litter and decomposes thereby fueling the foodweb from the coast to open sea: overall, approximately 10% of the primary production is converted to animal biomass including fish, shrimp, and oysters, among others.
Mangroves are also significant when it comes to the growing concern over global change because they represent an important atmospheric carbon (CO2) sink. Extrapolating from the park's mangrove surface area and data on primary production, it is estimated that the area fixes approximately 860,000 tons of carbon per year. Considering that the base price of one ton of carbon is worth $US 20 in carbon trading markets aimed at reducing emissions, the park's carbon fixation is worth approximately $17 million dollars per year (Naveda 2004).
Fauna
A study based on interviews with local inhabitants (Correa 1981; Provita 1988) indicates that bats, small rodents, monkeys, jaguarondis (Felis yaguarondi) and the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) are considered "very abundant" or "abundant." "Low abundant" or "restricted" species include deer, sloth, peccary, ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), striped hog-nosed skunk (Conepatus semistriatus), crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus), Brazilian porcupine (Coendou prehensilis) and silky anteater (Cyclopes didactylus). Among the species considered "very restricted" are giant otters (Pteronura brasiliensis) and West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), both of which are also classified as endangered species (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1999) and listed on CITES Appendix I. In addition, the manatee is classified as a globally vulnerable species (IUCN 2003) and the resolution calling for a "total ban on manatee hunting" protects the species in Venezuela (Resolution No. 127 MARNR September 8,1978). Another species known for the area is the river otter (Lontra longicaudis) (Ceballos and col. 2001).
Other mammals seen during field visits include red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus), weeping capuchin (Cebus nigrivittatus also known as Cebus olivaceus), capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), paca (Agouti paca), red brocket (Mazama americana), Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) and giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) (Mondolfi and Müller 1979). Among these, the paca and capybara are considered at "minor" risk in Venezuela, although several eastern populations of capybara tend to be small and some have even experienced local extinctions. The Brazilian tapir and giant anteater are classified as vulnerable and listed on CITES Appendix II (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1999).
The following table summarizes threatened mammals species reported in the area and their level of national and international threat.
|
Common name |
Scientific name |
Threat level in Venezuela |
Global threat level |
|
Silky anteater |
Cyclopes didactylus |
Insufficient data |
Not reported |
|
Giant Otter |
Pteronura brasiliensis |
Endangered |
Appendix I CITES |
|
West Indian manatee |
Trichechus manatus |
Endangered |
Appendix I CITES, Vulnerable (IUCN) |
|
Paca |
Agouti paca |
Minor risk |
Not reported |
|
Capybara |
Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris |
Minor risk |
Not reported |
|
Brazilian tapir |
Tapirus terrestris |
Vulnerable |
Appendix II CITES |
|
Giant anteater |
Myrmecophaga tridactyla |
Vulnerable |
Appendix II CITES |
Source: Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez (1999); IUCN (1999); Provita (1988); Mondolfi and Müller (1979).
The manatee is considered the park's most emblematic species and has received the most attention. The Gulf of Paria region is one of the most important manatee refuges in Venezuela, and taken with Orinoco Basin, it is the largest manatee habitat in the world (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1999). In Turuépano National Park, it has been seen in Viejo Stream and interviews with local fishermen indicate it is also present in La Palma, Ajíes, La Cruz and Aruca Streams, among others. In published reports, manatee-feeding troughs have been reported for almost all streams visited (Mondolfi 1974; O'Shea and col. 1986, 1988; Mondolfi and Müller 1979; Proyecto Mermaid 1992). Studies conducted in the zone conclude that hunting is to blame for their declining populations. At the end of the 1970s, the population was estimated between 100 and 150 individuals, distributed in groups of 4 to 20 manatees in each major stream (Mondolfi and Müller 1979).
Other species emblematic of the park are two otter species, locally known as "perro lobo" or giant otter (Pteronura brasilensis) and "perrito de agua" or neotropical river otter (Lontra longicaudis). Interviews and field visits indicate presence of both species in Negra and Agua Blanca Lagoons, in Ajíes and La Brea Streams, and Sabacual River. Despite their symbolism, both species increasingly have come under hunting pressure (Ceballos and col. 2001).
There are 99 bird species belonging to 35 families reported for the park. The most abundant families include Ardeidae (egrets and herons, 9 species) and Accipitridae (hawks, great black hawk, long-winged harrier, 13 species) (Provita 1988). The following table summarizes threatened bird species and their level of international and national threat.
|
Common name |
Scientific name |
Level of threat in Venezuela |
Level of global threat |
|
Agami heron |
Agamia agami |
Insufficient data |
Not reported |
|
South American bittern |
Botaurus pinnatus |
Insufficient data |
Not reported |
|
Scarlet ibis |
Eudocimus ruber |
Minor risk |
Not reported |
|
Roseate spoonbill |
Ajaia ajaja |
Minor risk |
Not repoted |
|
Muscovy duck |
Cairina moschata |
Minor risk |
Not reported |
|
Moriche oriole |
Icterus chrysocephalus |
Minor risk |
Not reported |
|
Long-winded harrier |
Circus bufonni |
Insufficient data |
Not reported |
|
Blue and yellow macaw |
Ara ararauna |
Minor risk |
Appendix II CITES, SPAW Protocol |
|
Yellow-crowned amazon |
Amazona ochrocephala |
Minor risk |
Appendix III SPAW Protocol |
|
Mangrove cuckoo |
Coccyzus minor |
Insufficient data |
Not reported |
Source: Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez (1999); Provita (1988).
Of the park's avian species, the scarlet ibis and muscovy duck stand out because of their abundance. Another common species is rufous crab-hawk (Buteogallus aequinoctialis), extinct in other parks of the country and restricted to the east (MARNR 1992). In addition, the area is extremely important for passing migratory birds like the whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) and willet (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus) (Provita 1988; MARNR 1992). Turuépano is one of the most important places in Venezuela for conserving aquatic birds; there are 69 aquatic bird species registered here (Lentino and Bruni 1994).
Scarlet ibis are abundant
Of the reptiles, there are 22 snakes known for the park (including the anaconda, Eunectes murinus), 18 lizard species, and 2 chelonia species (red-footed tortoise, Geochelone carbonaria and scorpion mud turtle, Kinosternon scorpioides). Species worth mentioning include the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) and probable presence of the coastal caiman and Orinoco caiman (Crocodylus acutus and C. intermedius), seen on many occasions by fishermen (MARNR 1992; Provita 1988). Both species are classified as endangered (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez 1999), are included on CITES Appendix I, and in 1979 the Venezuelan Ministry of Natural Resources (MARN) banned hunting of these species for an undetermined time period. There are 25 amphibian species including the curious Surinam toad (Pipa pipa), which has a very flat body and long webbed feet (Mondolfi and Müller 1979).
The park's ichthyofauna is also important. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) calls the northern continental platform of South America (which includes the Gulf of Paria) one of the most important areas for marine biodiversity in the central-western region of the Atlantic Ocean. Caribbean endemism is high in the Gulf of Paria, and it is one of the richest areas of mollusks, crustaceans, and marine fish. For Gulf of Paria's Basin, 183 species have been registered, 55 of which are estuarine (Lasso and col. 2004). In addition, the Gulf of Paria is one of the most important non-commercial and commercial fishing zones in the country.
In Turuépano streams, many important commercial fish are found including tarpon (Megalops atlanticus), swordspine snook (Centropomus ensiferus), seatrout (Cynoscion sp), mullet (Mugil sp), mojarras (various species from the family Gerreidae), sea catfish (various species from the family Ariidae) and grouper (Epinelophus sp.). (Mondolfi and Müller 1979). One fish that has captured the interest of park visitors is the four-eyed fish, or "zipotero" (Anableps anableps), that has a curious vision mechanism: its eyes are divided in two sections, the top section specialized in aerial vision and the bottom section specialized in sub-aquatic vision. This peculiar animal seems to walk over the mud when low tide leaves the bottom of streams uncovered.
